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The structure of liposomes can be engineered to encapsulate the hydrophobic or hydrophilic drugs, or other small molecules, in the lipid bilayer or aqueous core, respectively [230]. The cytotoxicity of the dendrimer encapsulated doxorubicin and LFC131-DOX-D4 to BT-549-Luc cells was evaluated and the IC50 value of LFC131-DOXD4 was 2.8 fold of DOX-D4 against BT-549-Luc cells and it was 6.8 fold of DOX-D4 against T47D cells after 24h of incubation, indicating that the ligand conjugated doxorubicin encapsulated dendrimer can enhance the cytotoxicity of the drug against the cancer cell lines [281]. Int. Daima et al., Synergistic influence of polyoxometalate surface corona towards enhancing the antibacterial performance of tyrosine-capped Ag nanoparticles. 129(32), 98569857 (2007), G. Han, P. Ghosh, V.M. J. Mol. Health B 14(8), 593632 (2011), H. Maeda, H. Nakamura, J. 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Shi et al., Cancer nanomedicine: progress, challenges and opportunities. Moreover, it is imperative to state that there is also a lack of patient-based experimental data on the EPR phenomenon. Temozolomide-FaPEC@siRNA exhibited higher cytotoxicity than both temozolomide-FaPEC and temozolomide-PEC, whereas C6 cells incubated with FaPEC@SCR and PEC@SCR exhibited viabilities over 90% even at a very high 100g/mL polymer concentration, indicating low cytotoxicity of carrier, a vital characteristic for in vivo application. 105, 228241 (2016), O. Akhavan et al., The use of a glucose-reduced graphene oxide suspension for photothermal cancer therapy. The drug loading capacity of hybrid material was in the order of camptothecin>protoporphyrin IX>doxorubicin, and displayed enhanced cytotoxicity [211]. have fabricated and characterized such dual ligandreceptor nanosystems using gold (Au) nanoparticles. Outlines the benefits and disadvantages of targeted therapy versus conventional chemotherapy. 66(13), 67326740 (2006), H. Zhou et al., IGF1 receptor targeted theranostic nanoparticles for targeted and image-guided therapy of pancreatic cancer. Mater. Recently, nanographene oxide complexed with upconverting nanoparticles were used for tumor imaging and photothermal therapy, signifying the potential of multifunctional graphene for clinical antitumor treatments [213]. Artif. Acta Biomater. Bioconjug. The first FDA (the Food and Drug Administration, national agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services) approved nano-drug is one consisting of PEGylated liposome entrapped doxorubicin (DOX) targeted against HIV-related Kaposi sarcoma tumor, and ovarian cancer. Therefore, polymeric nanoparticles can be effectively used to deliver cancer therapeutics by active and passive targeting. Stimuli responsive dendrimers enhance therapeutic efficiency and diminish the side effects. The in vivo antitumor effect of galactosylated graphene oxide was better than the chitosan graphene oxide, which was demonstrated by tumor weight and volume [216]. Biomaterials 33(3), 856866 (2012), A. Kumar et al., Gold nanoparticles functionalized with therapeutic and targeted peptides for cancer treatment. Pharm Res. 517(1), 157167 (2017), M. Ghaffari et al., Surface functionalized dendrimers as controlled-release delivery nanosystems for tumor targeting. Therefore, further advances in understanding tumor biology, understanding EPR effects in varieties of the tumor is essential. J. Nanomed. Iran. Spectrochim. 15(6), 21942205 (2018), M.U. Mater. Therefore, the knowledge from experimentation using these models could provide a false impression about the efficacy of passive targeted nanomaterials [40]. 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AK acknowledges International Max Planck Research School (IMPRS) Fellowship (Molecular Biology) from the Max Planck Society, Germany (2016-18) and Melbourne Research Scholarship for the support of his research at the University of Melbourne. 11(2), 140152 (2017), Article In another report, multi-walled carbon nanotube were decorated with TiO2Au nanocomposite, and the system was observed to be efficient in inducing toxicity to A549 and MCF7 cancer cell lines [200]. These particles can selectively target human osteosarcoma cells and are capable of pH-responsive antitumor drug delivery. Yuan et al., Surface charge switchable nanoparticles based on zwitterionic polymer for enhanced drug delivery to tumor. Persistent insoluble particles in in the environment can have far bigger negative effects than those revealed by human health assessments. Int. Mater. These liposomal formulations exhibited negative zeta potential values and an in vitro release study demonstrated that the liposomal formulations displayed good stability, and an extended circulation time required to avoid drug clearance before arrival at the target cells. Am. Wherein, the material display higher cytotoxicity against human liver cancer cells HepG2, and revealed to have improved bioavailability at the site [140]. 13, 15051524 (2018), S. Malekmohammadi et al., Immobilization of gold nanoparticles on folate-conjugated dendritic mesoporous silica-coated reduced graphene oxide nanosheets: a new nanoplatform for curcumin pH-controlled and targeted delivery. However, limitations such as lack of specificity, cytotoxicity, and multi-drug resistance pose a substantial challenge for favorable cancer treatment. J. Pharm. Nanomedicine 2(1), 113123 (2007), G. Han et al., Drug and gene delivery using gold nanoparticles. Rev. 102, 555566 (2018), P. Gupta et al., Synthesis and in vitro studies of PLGA-DTX nanoconjugate as potential drug delivery vehicle for oral cancer. The accumulation of the nanocarriers is essentiallydepends on physicochemical properties such as size, shape (morphology), surface charge and surface chemistry [32]. 13(1), 238IN27 (1965), J. Gubernator, Active methods of drug loading into liposomes: recent strategies for stable drug entrapment and increased in vivo activity. 131(4), 13601361 (2009), S.S. Agasti et al., Photoregulated release of caged anticancer drugs from gold nanoparticles. a The effect of IGF1R in MIAPaCa-2 cells was assessed by immunofluorescence labeling employing an anti-IGF1R antibody (shown in red color). A summary of different organic nanomaterials used as drug delivery carrier for anticancer drugs and the targets is shown in Table3. VR acknowledges the NIH (EB022641). 8b. This category of nanomaterials forms a significant fraction of current drug delivery systems due to their precise control of size and shape, tuneable physicochemical properties, controlled surface chemistry and diverse multifunctionality. -, Quazi S (2021) Telomerase gene therapy: a remission towards cancer. Polymeric nanoparticles are efficient in enhancing therapeutic and diagnostic effects over conventional medicines. Eng. 359(17), 1834 (2008), X. Li et al., Enhancement of cell recognition in vitro by dual-ligand cancer targeting gold nanoparticles. Nanotechnology can stop diseases internally, and even slow down aging process. Often in the breast cancer cells, Mucin 1 (MUC1), a cell surface protein, will be overexpressed. Drug Deliv. 52(2), 899912 (2015), S. Ma et al., Highly stable fluorinated nanocarriers with iRGD for overcoming the stability dilemma and enhancing tumor penetration in an orthotopic breast cancer. The review is based on the published data and sources of data upon which conclusions have been drawn can be found in the reference list. Mater. 12, 69736984 (2017), N. Gao et al., Tumor penetrating theranostic nanoparticles for enhancement of targeted and image-guided drug delivery into peritoneal tumors following intraperitoneal delivery. ACS Appl. Dalton Trans. In the paradigm of nanomedicine, nanotechnology is being embraced to obtain effective drug delivery, establish novel in vitro diagnostics, and develop nano-based implants [7, 10, 11]. different materials such as natural or synthetic polymers, lipids or metals. 11, 20212037 (2016), K. Vimala et al., Green synthesized doxorubicin loaded zinc oxide nanoparticles regulates the Bax and Bcl-2 expression in breast and colon carcinoma. It is well-known that the activity of the anticancer drugs is greatly attenuated by the time drug reaches the target, which can render the treatment to be ineffective and increase off-target effects. Chem. Wang et al., developed a multi-walled carbon nanotube platform with improved circulation half-life, and active targeting ability with high drug loading ratio. Phytochemical-based nanodrugs going beyond the state-of-the-art in cancer management-Targeting cancer stem cells in the framework of predictive, preventive, personalized medicine. C 90, 589601 (2018), N.H. Levi-Polyachenko et al., Rapid photothermal intracellular drug delivery using multiwalled carbon nanotubes. 2, 751 (2007), V.M. Tumor-specific targeting at the surface of the cancer cells has also been explored to eradicate tumor cells. B 2(22), 34133426 (2014), C.D. Likewise, Huang et al. Acad. Kumar, F. Mohammad, Magnetic nanomaterials for hyperthermia-based therapy and controlled drug delivery. These are responsive to pH, temperature, enzyme, light, the concentration of glutathione [283]. Tailor-made nanomaterials functionalized with specific ligands can target cancer cells in a predictable manner and deliver encapsulated payloads effectively. The chemical changes can also introduce changes in the hydrophobicity of the polymer, changing the integrity of nanoparticles and thereby leading to release of drug cargo. Uptake was less effective with the negatively charged particles, however, indicating the role of negative surface charge on the nanoparticles, which can reduce the undesirable clearance by liver cells [111]. Artif. J. Pharm. Navya, P.N., Kaphle, A., Srinivas, S.P. The tested glycol-modified graphene quantum dots exhibited strong inhibitory effect on the tumor growth with minimal systemic drug toxicity in an oral squamous cell carcinoma xenograft mouse tumor model [209]. It is accompanied by a brief description of new nanotechnology methods for diagnosis. 17(8), 1600457 (2017), K. Jain et al., Dendrimer toxicity: lets meet the challenge. Int. 2018;22:24. doi: 10.1186/s40824-018-0133-y. Chem. The most effective approach of delivering anticancer drugs is by conjugation of ligands that specifically recognize and binds to the receptors on the tumor cells. In this section, multiple nanocarriers have been discussed including liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, and metal nanoparticles. J. Nanomed. The graphene oxide based carrier was found to be effective in inhibiting and killing A549 cells, and displayed lesser toxicity against normal human bronchial epithelial cells [215]. 252(1), 263266 (2003), X. 111, 964970 (2014), M. Ghorbani, H. Hamishehkar, Redox and pH-responsive gold nanoparticles as a new platform for simultaneous triple anti-cancer drugs targeting. J. Pharm. Therefore, synthesis and characterization of the nanomaterials for drug delivery need to be carefully performed to avoid the potential unwanted toxicity of nanocarriers to healthy cells [23]. Proc. The smart design and synthesis of a library of nanomaterials, precise control over their physicochemical properties and ease of their surface functionalization to increase specificity is indeed necessary for the success of cancer nanotherapeutics. Mater. 550(1), 170179 (2018), H. Gan et al., Enhanced delivery of sorafenib with anti-GPC3 antibody-conjugated TPGS-b-PCL/pluronic P123 polymeric nanoparticles for targeted therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer biomarker; Cancer diagnosis; Nanoparticle. Since the fate of nanoparticles may be altered due to the surface conjugation of ligands, the nanomaterials further need to be carefully investigated, following their surface decoration to reduce unwanted toxicity effects, and to evaluate their increased specificity and sensitivity post-modification. J. Photochem. To date, many types of organic nanocarriers have been developed such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers and micelles. J. It could also highlight a tumor's parameters and margins to enhance the precision of diagnostics. They have an ultra-small size, large . Yadav, S.C. Yadav, Biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles based drug delivery systems. Chithrani et al. Nanotechnology is expected to be promising in many fields of medical applications, mainly in cancer treatment. The authors announce no competing of interest. The site is secure. Navya, H.K. Sci. Adv. 48(61), 76407642 (2012), R. Vivek et al., pH-responsive drug delivery of chitosan nanoparticles as Tamoxifen carriers for effective anti-tumor activity in breast cancer cells. The CFPAC-1 pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell viability decreased, indicating a PEGc polyamide amine-PEG dendrimers anti-cancer effect. A schematic representation of the major challenges in the delivery of cancer nanotherapeutics is depicted in Fig. Brito C, Loureno C, Magalhes J, Reis S, Borges M. Vaccines (Basel). The nanocarriers need to be smaller than the cut-off of the proportions in the neovasculature, with the extravasation to the tumor acutely affected by the size of the vehicle. 2023 Mar 15;14:1101320. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1101320. Sahoo, Evaluation of curcumin loaded chitosan/PEG blended PLGA nanoparticles for effective treatment of pancreatic cancer. Conjugation with anti-Flt-1 antibody improved the accumulation of PEGc polyamide amine-PEG dendrimers into the pancreatic tumors [282]. J. This accumulation of the drug at the tumor sites is a passive process, and it requires prolonged circulation of the drug for appropriate drug delivery. Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy and Its Role in Overcoming Drug Resistance. Biophys. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Multifunctional graphene smart nanomaterials have been developed for drug delivery and cellular imaging in cancer treatment [210, 213]. 16(4), 12731304 (2017), Y. Chi et al., Redox-sensitive and hyaluronic acid functionalized liposomes for cytoplasmic drug delivery to osteosarcoma in animal models. Similarly, graphene oxide with galactosylated chitosan with doxorubicin have been developed for the treatment of cancer. 9, 789 (2003), P.N. Nanotechnology improves cancer detection and, Nanotechnology improves cancer detection and diagnosis, Schematic illustration of nanotechnology applications, Schematic illustration of nanotechnology applications in cancer diagnosis, MeSH Biosci. All samples were stained with 0.5% uranyl acetate for 1min. In another study, iron oxide nanoparticles were used to deliver OVA, an anticancer vaccine. Despite efforts to mitigate risk factors in recent decades, the prevalence of cancer is continuing to increase [1]. People will never need to disrupt or obliterate the environment since they can use unused things and left over things that have been used up already. Biosci. Photobiol. Biomaterials 32(31), 80108020 (2011), S. Mignani et al., Dendrimers in combination with natural products and analogues as anti-cancer agents. Docetaxel-loaded galactosamine combined with polydopamine-modified nanoparticles synthesized from d-a-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate-poly(lactide) (Gal-pD-TPGS-PLA/NPs) were found to inhibit the growth of HepG2 cells more effectively than TPGS-PLA/NPs, pD-TPGS-PLA/NPs, and a clinically available docetaxel formulation (Taxotere). Thus, nanotechnology is creating new opportunities for designing materials that can revolutionize the approaches to drug delivery and transform the landscape of the pharmacological treatment of cancer [7, 24,25,26].

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